diff --git a/CHANGELOG.md b/CHANGELOG.md
index 739778f..2bc039b 100644
--- a/CHANGELOG.md
+++ b/CHANGELOG.md
@@ -5,6 +5,24 @@ Format follows [Keep a Changelog](https://keepachangelog.com/en/1.1.0/); version
 
 ## [Unreleased]
 
+### Added
+
+- **The panel signs outgoing mail with DKIM itself** (panel-dkim-signing,
+  stage 1 of [the plan](docs/plans/panel-dkim-signing.md)): a milter of the
+  panel's on two sockets, one for applications' mail - signed with the key of
+  the domain the login belongs to - and one for the panel's own, signed with
+  the server's name. `relaxed/simple`, RFC 6376 § 5.4.1's headers and `From`
+  once more, as OpenDKIM signs; strict. Until OpenDKIM leaves the image both
+  sign every message, and the e2e suite holds the two to the same `h=` and
+  `bh=` and has dkimpy - an independent implementation - verify each.
+
+### Fixed
+
+- **An 8-bit message could leave with a broken signature.** Postfix rewrote
+  it as quoted-printable for a server that does not announce 8BITMIME, after
+  it was signed; `disable_mime_output_conversion=yes` now delivers it as
+  signed. OpenDKIM's signatures were exposed to this too.
+
 ## [2.7.0] - 2026-10-15
 
 The image runs Debian trixie and Postfix 3.10.13, with upstream's 2026
diff --git a/build/postfix-config.sh b/build/postfix-config.sh
index a63ebd5..3214dda 100644
--- a/build/postfix-config.sh
+++ b/build/postfix-config.sh
@@ -185,6 +185,11 @@ OPENDKIM_SOCK="${OPENDKIM_SOCKET:-/run/opendkim/opendkim.sock}"
 JOURNAL_SOCK="${JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/journal.sock}"
 # The panel's sender check (the From: line against the login, strict).
 SENDER_SOCK="${SENDER_CHECK_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/sender.sock}"
+# The panel's DKIM signer (strict): applications' mail, signed with the key
+# of the login's domain, and the panel's own, with the server's name's
+# (cmd/panel/signer.go). Matched by postfix-wrapper.sh.
+SIGN_SOCK="${DKIM_SIGN_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/sign.sock}"
+SIGN_LOCAL_SOCK="${DKIM_SIGN_LOCAL_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/sign-local.sock}"
 
 # Persistent panel-managed sender map; texthash needs no postmap, so the
 # unprivileged panel can rewrite it and just ask for a reload. Postfix 3.10.13,
@@ -405,10 +410,16 @@ postconf -e \
 # message it could not judge must not reach the signer. While the panel does
 # not answer on that socket, mail is deferred (docs/security.md).
 #
+# The panel's DKIM signer follows the sender check, strict too
+# (docs/plans/panel-dkim-signing.md). Until OpenDKIM leaves the image both
+# sign (stage 1 of that plan): OpenDKIM after the panel, so that every
+# message carries both signatures and the e2e suite compares them.
+#
 # non_smtpd_milters is the chain for mail submitted locally with sendmail(1) -
-# the panel's own notifications, sent as postmaster@ the hostname. OpenDKIM
-# signs them with the key of the server's own name; the journal-milter is not
-# on this chain, since they are not an application's mail. Bounces Postfix
+# the panel's own notifications, sent as postmaster@ the hostname. The
+# signer's own socket for it, and OpenDKIM, sign them with the key of the
+# server's own name; the journal-milter is not on this chain, since they are
+# not an application's mail. Bounces Postfix
 # generates itself do not pass it (internal_mail_filter_classes is empty).
 #
 # Postfix 3.10.13: html/MILTER_README.html:584, "Different settings for different
@@ -420,8 +431,18 @@ postconf -e \
 postconf -e \
 	"milter_protocol=6" \
 	"milter_default_action=tempfail" \
-	"smtpd_milters={ unix:${SENDER_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }, { unix:${OPENDKIM_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }, { unix:${JOURNAL_SOCK}, default_action=accept }" \
-	"non_smtpd_milters={ unix:${OPENDKIM_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }"
+	"smtpd_milters={ unix:${SENDER_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }, { unix:${SIGN_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }, { unix:${OPENDKIM_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }, { unix:${JOURNAL_SOCK}, default_action=accept }" \
+	"non_smtpd_milters={ unix:${SIGN_LOCAL_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }, { unix:${OPENDKIM_SOCK}, default_action=tempfail }"
+
+# A signed message is delivered as it was signed: Postfix's SMTP client would
+# otherwise rewrite an 8-bit message as quoted-printable for a server that
+# does not announce 8BITMIME, and every body hash over it would fail.
+# Postfix 3.10.13, src/global/mail_params.h:3088, DEF_DISABLE_MIME_OCONV 0
+# (the conversion is on by default); proto/postconf.proto:7992,
+# disable_mime_output_conversion: "Disable the conversion of 8BITMIME format
+# to 7BIT format". Not set until 2.8.0 - OpenDKIM's signatures were exposed
+# to it as well.
+postconf -e "disable_mime_output_conversion=yes"
 
 # What Postfix tells a milter with MAIL FROM: its defaults plus the client's
 # address. The panel's milters judge every message by that address (an
diff --git a/build/postfix-wrapper.sh b/build/postfix-wrapper.sh
index 25094fd..3f72991 100644
--- a/build/postfix-wrapper.sh
+++ b/build/postfix-wrapper.sh
@@ -2,8 +2,9 @@
 # Postfix start wrapper: solves the cold-start race where Postfix would try to
 # reach the milter sockets before they are listening.
 #
-# It blocks until the milter sockets — OpenDKIM, the panel's sender check and
-# journal-milter and, with the inbound relay on, its inbound journal milter —
+# It blocks until the milter sockets — OpenDKIM, the panel's sender check,
+# DKIM signer (two) and journal-milter and, with the inbound relay on, its
+# inbound journal milter —
 # are present, then runs `postfix start-fg` and stays its parent. If they are
 # not ready within the timeout it exits non-zero WITHOUT starting Postfix.
 # supervisord counts that exit as one that came too quickly - the program's
@@ -22,10 +23,12 @@ set -eu
 OPENDKIM_SOCK="${OPENDKIM_SOCKET:-/run/opendkim/opendkim.sock}"
 JOURNAL_SOCK="${JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/journal.sock}"
 SENDER_SOCK="${SENDER_CHECK_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/sender.sock}"
+SIGN_SOCK="${DKIM_SIGN_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/sign.sock}"
+SIGN_LOCAL_SOCK="${DKIM_SIGN_LOCAL_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/sign-local.sock}"
 TIMEOUT="${MILTER_WAIT_TIMEOUT:-30}"
 INTERVAL=1
 
-SOCKS="$OPENDKIM_SOCK $JOURNAL_SOCK $SENDER_SOCK"
+SOCKS="$OPENDKIM_SOCK $JOURNAL_SOCK $SENDER_SOCK $SIGN_SOCK $SIGN_LOCAL_SOCK"
 if [ "${INBOUND_RELAY_ENABLE:-false}" = "true" ]; then
 	SOCKS="$SOCKS ${INBOUND_JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET:-/run/selfpost/inbound-journal.sock}"
 fi
diff --git a/cmd/panel/main.go b/cmd/panel/main.go
index d1febeb..ee7539b 100644
--- a/cmd/panel/main.go
+++ b/cmd/panel/main.go
@@ -78,9 +78,12 @@ type config struct {
 	httpAddr      string
 	journalSocket string
 	// The sender check's socket; the default mirrors build/postfix-config.sh.
-	senderSocket  string
-	mailLog       string
-	retentionDays int
+	senderSocket string
+	// The DKIM signer's sockets: applications' mail and the panel's own
+	// (cmd/panel/signer.go).
+	signSocket, signLocalSocket string
+	mailLog                     string
+	retentionDays               int
 
 	dataDir                string
 	dbPath                 string
@@ -138,6 +141,10 @@ func loadConfig() config {
 		httpAddr:      envDefault("PANEL_HTTP_ADDR", ":8080"),
 		journalSocket: envDefault("JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET", "/run/selfpost/journal.sock"),
 		senderSocket:  envDefault("SENDER_CHECK_SOCKET", "/run/selfpost/sender.sock"),
+		// The DKIM signer's two sockets; the defaults must match
+		// build/postfix-config.sh and build/postfix-wrapper.sh.
+		signSocket:      envDefault("DKIM_SIGN_SOCKET", "/run/selfpost/sign.sock"),
+		signLocalSocket: envDefault("DKIM_SIGN_LOCAL_SOCKET", "/run/selfpost/sign-local.sock"),
 		// Postfix's delivery log, under /data so the lines that resolve a
 		// "queued" send-log row outlive the container. The default must match
 		// maillog_file in build/postfix-config.sh.
@@ -402,8 +409,8 @@ func run() error {
 	}
 
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
-	// Room for every role to report a failure without blocking: seven at most.
-	errc := make(chan error, 7)
+	// Room for every role to report a failure without blocking: eight at most.
+	errc := make(chan error, 8)
 
 	roles := []struct {
 		name string
@@ -412,6 +419,7 @@ func run() error {
 		{"http", func(ctx context.Context) error { return serveHTTP(ctx, cfg, st) }},
 		{"journal-milter", func(ctx context.Context) error { return serveJournal(ctx, cfg, st) }},
 		{"sender-check", func(ctx context.Context) error { return serveSenderCheck(ctx, cfg, st) }},
+		{"dkim-signer", func(ctx context.Context) error { return serveSigner(ctx, cfg) }},
 		{"log-tailer", func(ctx context.Context) error {
 			return logtail.Run(ctx, cfg.mailLog, st, func() int {
 				days, err := st.GetSendLogRetentionDays(cfg.retentionDays)
diff --git a/cmd/panel/signer.go b/cmd/panel/signer.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8797502
--- /dev/null
+++ b/cmd/panel/signer.go
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+package main
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"log"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+
+	"github.com/mixeme/selfpost/internal/milter"
+	"github.com/mixeme/selfpost/internal/postfix"
+)
+
+// serveSigner runs the DKIM signer (internal/milter/sign.go) on its two
+// sockets: signSocket for what applications send on 465/587, signed with the
+// key of the domain the login belongs to - the sender_login_maps Postfix and
+// the sender check read (Bindings.DomainOf); signLocalSocket for what the
+// panel itself submits with sendmail(1), signed with the key of the server's
+// name. Postfix attaches both strictly (default_action=tempfail,
+// build/postfix-config.sh), so while this role is not serving, mail waits.
+//
+// The keys and selectors come from the KeyTable under opendkimDir, which the
+// panel writes for OpenDKIM too while both sign (docs/plans/panel-dkim-signing.md,
+// stage 1).
+func serveSigner(ctx context.Context, cfg config) error {
+	keys := milter.NewSignKeys(filepath.Join(cfg.opendkimDir, "KeyTable"), filepath.Join(cfg.opendkimDir, "keys"))
+	bind := milter.NewBindings(postfix.New(cfg.postfixDir).SenderLoginMapsPath())
+	server := strings.ToLower(cfg.hostname)
+
+	apps, err := listenMilter(cfg.signSocket)
+	if err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	local, err := listenMilter(cfg.signLocalSocket)
+	if err != nil {
+		apps.Close()
+		return err
+	}
+	log.Printf("dkim-signer listening on %s (applications) and %s (the panel's own mail, as %s)", cfg.signSocket, cfg.signLocalSocket, server)
+
+	errc := make(chan error, 2)
+	go func() { errc <- milter.ServeSign(ctx, apps, keys, bind.DomainOf) }()
+	go func() {
+		errc <- milter.ServeSign(ctx, local, keys, func(string) string { return server })
+	}()
+	// The first to stop decides: an error stops the panel (run()), and on a
+	// cancelled ctx both return nil.
+	if err := <-errc; err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	return <-errc
+}
diff --git a/docs/architecture.md b/docs/architecture.md
index 8b6153c..2f0b9bf 100644
--- a/docs/architecture.md
+++ b/docs/architecture.md
@@ -28,13 +28,13 @@ Managed programs ([build/supervisord.conf](../build/supervisord.conf)):
 |---|---|---|---|
 | `syslog-relay` | panel | 50 | The container's `/dev/log`: passes what OpenDKIM logs through syslog(3) to the container's log (`panel -syslog-relay`) |
 | `opendkim` | root → `opendkim` (`UserID` in opendkim.conf) | 100 | DKIM signing milter |
-| `panel` | panel | 200 | HTTP UI + sender check + journal-milter + log-tailer + rate-limit recalc; with the inbound relay on also the inbound journal milter |
-| `postfix` | root (wrapper) | 300 | MTA — started only after the milter sockets exist (OpenDKIM's, the sender check's, the journal milter's and, with the inbound relay on, the inbound journal milter's) |
+| `panel` | panel | 200 | HTTP UI + sender check + DKIM signer + journal-milter + log-tailer + rate-limit recalc; with the inbound relay on also the inbound journal milter |
+| `postfix` | root (wrapper) | 300 | MTA — started only after the milter sockets exist (OpenDKIM's, the sender check's, the DKIM signer's two, the journal milter's and, with the inbound relay on, the inbound journal milter's) |
 | `postfix-reload` | root | — | On-demand `postfix reload` (autostart off) |
 | `cert-reload` | root | 400 | Daily: re-copies a renewed TLS certificate for Postfix and reloads it |
 | `logrotate` | root | 400 | Periodic `mail.log` rotation |
 
-Start order: syslog-relay → OpenDKIM → panel (opens the sender check's and the journal-milter's sockets) → Postfix wrapper
+Start order: syslog-relay → OpenDKIM → panel (opens the sender check's, the DKIM signer's and the journal-milter's sockets) → Postfix wrapper
 polls unix sockets (timeout `MILTER_WAIT_TIMEOUT`, default 30s) then runs
 `postfix start-fg` and stays its parent: on TERM it runs `postfix stop`, so a
 stop of the program or of the container stops Postfix as Postfix means it to
@@ -237,7 +237,7 @@ domain is added or deleted.
 
 ### Panel binary ([cmd/panel](../cmd/panel))
 
-One process, six roles (seven with the inbound relay on: its inbound journal
+One process, seven roles (eight with the inbound relay on: its inbound journal
 milter, § Postfix above, port 25):
 
 1. **HTTP server** — `:8080` (`PANEL_HTTP_ADDR`); HTTPS terminated by reverse
@@ -256,7 +256,15 @@ milter, § Postfix above, port 25):
    (`300s` / `4000s` / `5d` / `0`) with a muted note on the box.
 2. **sender check** — unix socket `SENDER_CHECK_SOCKET`, first in the chain
    and **strict** (`default_action=tempfail`): § Sender check below.
-3. **journal-milter** — unix socket `JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET`; records From/To/
+3. **DKIM signer** (`2.8.0`, [plans/panel-dkim-signing.md](plans/panel-dkim-signing.md))
+   — unix sockets `DKIM_SIGN_SOCKET` (applications' mail on 465/587, signed
+   with the key of the domain the SASL login belongs to) and
+   `DKIM_SIGN_LOCAL_SOCKET` (the panel's own mail, `non_smtpd_milters`,
+   signed with the key of the server's name); after the sender check and
+   **strict**. `relaxed/simple`, RFC 6376 § 5.4.1's headers and `From` once
+   more, go-msgauth/dkim; keys and selectors from OpenDKIM's KeyTable while
+   both sign (`internal/milter/sign.go`).
+4. **journal-milter** — unix socket `JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET`; records From/To/
    Subject/SASL user at DATA; enforces level-2 rate limits; **fail-open**
    (`default_action=accept`) so milter failure does not stop mail. Domain
    ceilings apply to every client IP; an application ceiling **overrides** the
@@ -268,22 +276,25 @@ milter, § Postfix above, port 25):
    this process has admitted but not yet written (`internal/milter/inflight.go`),
    so concurrent sessions cannot each spend the same last slot; a reservation
    is released at end-of-message, on ABORT, or after a 10-minute TTL.
-4. **log-tailer** — follows `MAIL_LOG`, updates send-log delivery status by
+5. **log-tailer** — follows `MAIL_LOG`, updates send-log delivery status by
    queue-id. Send-log `queued → sent` transitions depend on this goroutine alone
    (`UpdateStatus` is only called from [internal/logtail](../internal/logtail/logtail.go)).
    It also keeps the lines Postfix writes under a queue id, for the message's
    page (§ Log tailer, *Stored lines*), and counts the mail Postfix deferred
    because the sender check did not answer.
-5. **rate-limit recalc** — every six hours (and on demand from Domain settings and
+6. **rate-limit recalc** — every six hours (and on demand from Domain settings and
    the application form), recomputes level-2 **Auto** rate limits from send-log statistics.
-6. **notifier** — writes to the panel's users when something needs them
+7. **notifier** — writes to the panel's users when something needs them
    (§ Notifications below).
 
-Milter chain in Postfix: the sender check (tempfail), OpenDKIM (tempfail),
-then the journal (accept on failure). Mail submitted locally with
-`sendmail(1)` — the notifier's — passes OpenDKIM alone (`non_smtpd_milters`):
-it is signed, it is the panel's own and so needs no check of whose it is, and
-it is not an application's mail to be journalled or limited. Bounces Postfix
+Milter chain in Postfix: the sender check (tempfail), the panel's DKIM
+signer (tempfail), OpenDKIM (tempfail), then the journal (accept on
+failure); until OpenDKIM leaves the image both sign every message
+(docs/plans/panel-dkim-signing.md, stage 1). Mail submitted locally with
+`sendmail(1)` — the notifier's — passes the signer's own socket and OpenDKIM
+(`non_smtpd_milters`): it is signed, it is the panel's own and so needs no
+check of whose it is, and it is not an application's mail to be journalled
+or limited. Bounces Postfix
 generates pass no milter.
 
 ### Sender check
@@ -1129,6 +1140,9 @@ unsupported rather than as a missing doc:
   (`/data/setup-token`), `PANEL_HTTP_ADDR` (`:8080`),
   `JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET` (`/run/selfpost/journal.sock`),
   `SENDER_CHECK_SOCKET` (`/run/selfpost/sender.sock`),
+  `DKIM_SIGN_SOCKET` (`/run/selfpost/sign.sock`) and `DKIM_SIGN_LOCAL_SOCKET`
+  (`/run/selfpost/sign-local.sock` — the DKIM signer's, read by the panel,
+  `build/postfix-config.sh` and `build/postfix-wrapper.sh`, which must agree),
   `INBOUND_JOURNAL_MILTER_SOCKET` (`/run/selfpost/inbound-journal.sock` — the
   inbound journal milter's socket, read by the panel, `build/postfix-config.sh`
   and `build/postfix-wrapper.sh`, which must agree), `MAIL_LOG`
diff --git a/go.mod b/go.mod
index d06972e..0d5ac99 100644
--- a/go.mod
+++ b/go.mod
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@ require (
 require (
 	github.com/dustin/go-humanize v1.0.1 // indirect
 	github.com/emersion/go-message v0.18.1 // indirect
+	github.com/emersion/go-msgauth v0.7.0 // indirect
 	github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0 // indirect
 	github.com/mattn/go-isatty v0.0.24 // indirect
 	github.com/ncruces/go-strftime v1.0.0 // indirect
diff --git a/go.sum b/go.sum
index 2f9a67c..288264e 100644
--- a/go.sum
+++ b/go.sum
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ github.com/emersion/go-message v0.18.1 h1:tfTxIoXFSFRwWaZsgnqS1DSZuGpYGzSmCZD8SK
 github.com/emersion/go-message v0.18.1/go.mod h1:XpJyL70LwRvq2a8rVbHXikPgKj8+aI0kGdHlg16ibYA=
 github.com/emersion/go-milter v0.4.1 h1:gLs9QD0zEHF8omgEw8M+aGz6iwBNpWLAcwgSur0ra4M=
 github.com/emersion/go-milter v0.4.1/go.mod h1:erCQVl0mH4SX9jEvwe+wyndit0rQtmvMLH86V6NGtkI=
+github.com/emersion/go-msgauth v0.7.0 h1:vj2hMn6KhFtW41kshIBTXvp6KgYSqpA/ZN9Pv4g1INc=
+github.com/emersion/go-msgauth v0.7.0/go.mod h1:mmS9I6HkSovrNgq0HNXTeu8l3sRAAuQ9RMvbM4KU7Ck=
 github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20260802141513-ef3492d7dac3 h1:LMLX+LgTNWpfvCBdFebv6EsYotImrt/Ppc5cXIriCSo=
 github.com/google/pprof v0.0.0-20260802141513-ef3492d7dac3/go.mod h1:jl5iWTm0/hd5PjEYEOuwAJ57L/CibdZfrqZ5XA5GrCk=
 github.com/google/uuid v1.6.0 h1:NIvaJDMOsjHA8n1jAhLSgzrAzy1Hgr+hNrb57e+94F0=
diff --git a/internal/milter/sign.go b/internal/milter/sign.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c4f65d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/milter/sign.go
@@ -0,0 +1,388 @@
+package milter
+
+// The DKIM signer (docs/plans/panel-dkim-signing.md): the panel's own milter
+// that signs what applications send on 465/587 with the key of the domain
+// their login belongs to, and what the panel itself sends with the key of
+// the server's name. Each of the two is a socket of its own, so the socket a
+// message comes through - not the absence of a login - decides that the
+// server's key may sign it (Q1 of the plan).
+
+import (
+	"context"
+	"crypto"
+	"crypto/x509"
+	"encoding/pem"
+	"errors"
+	"fmt"
+	"log"
+	"net"
+	"net/textproto"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+	"sync"
+	"time"
+
+	"github.com/emersion/go-milter"
+	"github.com/emersion/go-msgauth/dkim"
+)
+
+// signHeaders is the set of header names signed when present: OpenDKIM's
+// dkim_should_signhdrs[], RFC 6376 § 5.4.1's list (OpenDKIM 2.11.0~beta2,
+// libopendkim/dkim.c:223-246), which OpenDKIM signed with until now. Every
+// occurrence is signed, in message order, and From once more (signLines).
+var signHeaders = map[string]bool{
+	"from": true, "reply-to": true, "subject": true, "date": true, "to": true, "cc": true,
+	"resent-date": true, "resent-from": true, "resent-sender": true, "resent-to": true, "resent-cc": true,
+	"in-reply-to": true, "references": true,
+	"list-id": true, "list-help": true, "list-unsubscribe": true, "list-subscribe": true,
+	"list-post": true, "list-owner": true, "list-archive": true,
+}
+
+// signLimit bounds how long a message may take from the end of its headers
+// to its end. go-milter v0.4.1 tells a session nothing when its connection
+// ends early (session.go, HandleMilterCommands(): it returns on EOF or QUIT
+// without calling Abort), and go-msgauth's signer reads the message in a
+// goroutine of its own (dkim/sign.go, NewSigner(): an io.Pipe), which would
+// wait for the rest for ever. At the limit the signer is closed and a message
+// that does go on is deferred, never signed over part of its body. An hour is
+// far above Postfix's own bounds on a transaction.
+const signLimit = time.Hour
+
+// SignKeys reads the domains the server signs for, their selectors and key
+// files from the KeyTable the panel writes (internal/domain, renderTables():
+// "<domain> <domain>:<selector>:<keysDir>/<domain>/<selector>.private"), the
+// table OpenDKIM reads too until it leaves the image. A key file is read
+// when it changes, and only from under keysDir.
+type SignKeys struct {
+	table, keysDir string
+
+	mu    sync.Mutex
+	stamp fileStamp
+	rows  map[string]keyRow
+	keys  map[string]loadedKey
+}
+
+type keyRow struct{ selector, path string }
+
+type loadedKey struct {
+	stamp  fileStamp
+	signer crypto.Signer
+}
+
+// fileStamp tells a file's versions apart: the panel replaces a table or a
+// key by writing a new file and renaming it over the old one
+// (internal/atomicfile), so a new version is a new modification time or
+// size.
+type fileStamp struct {
+	mod  time.Time
+	size int64
+}
+
+func stampOf(fi os.FileInfo) fileStamp { return fileStamp{fi.ModTime(), fi.Size()} }
+
+// errNoKey is a domain the KeyTable has no line for.
+var errNoKey = errors.New("no signing key")
+
+// NewSignKeys reads keyTable; keysDir is the directory every key in it must
+// be under.
+func NewSignKeys(keyTable, keysDir string) *SignKeys {
+	return &SignKeys{table: keyTable, keysDir: keysDir, keys: map[string]loadedKey{}}
+}
+
+// Lookup gives the selector and key of domain.
+func (k *SignKeys) Lookup(domain string) (string, crypto.Signer, error) {
+	domain = strings.ToLower(domain)
+	k.mu.Lock()
+	defer k.mu.Unlock()
+	if err := k.readTable(); err != nil {
+		return "", nil, err
+	}
+	row, ok := k.rows[domain]
+	if !ok {
+		return "", nil, fmt.Errorf("%w for %s", errNoKey, domain)
+	}
+	fi, err := os.Stat(row.path)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", nil, fmt.Errorf("key of %s: %w", domain, err)
+	}
+	if have, ok := k.keys[row.path]; ok && have.stamp == stampOf(fi) {
+		return row.selector, have.signer, nil
+	}
+	signer, err := readKey(row.path)
+	if err != nil {
+		return "", nil, fmt.Errorf("key of %s: %w", domain, err)
+	}
+	k.keys[row.path] = loadedKey{stampOf(fi), signer}
+	return row.selector, signer, nil
+}
+
+func (k *SignKeys) readTable() error {
+	fi, err := os.Stat(k.table)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("key table: %w", err)
+	}
+	if k.rows != nil && k.stamp == stampOf(fi) {
+		return nil
+	}
+	data, err := os.ReadFile(k.table)
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("key table: %w", err)
+	}
+	rows := map[string]keyRow{}
+	for n, line := range strings.Split(string(data), "\n") {
+		if strings.TrimSpace(line) == "" {
+			continue
+		}
+		name, value, ok := strings.Cut(line, " ")
+		// Domain and selector never hold a colon (internal/domain,
+		// opendkimForbidden); the path takes the rest.
+		parts := strings.SplitN(value, ":", 3)
+		if !ok || len(parts) != 3 || !strings.EqualFold(parts[0], name) {
+			return fmt.Errorf("key table: line %d is not \"<domain> <domain>:<selector>:<path>\"", n+1)
+		}
+		domain, selector, path := strings.ToLower(name), parts[1], parts[2]
+		// The panel writes exactly this path (renderTables); anything else
+		// is not read.
+		if want := filepath.Join(k.keysDir, domain, selector+".private"); filepath.Clean(path) != want {
+			return fmt.Errorf("key table: line %d names %s, not %s", n+1, path, want)
+		}
+		rows[domain] = keyRow{selector, path}
+	}
+	k.rows, k.stamp = rows, stampOf(fi)
+	return nil
+}
+
+// readKey reads a PEM private key: PKCS#1 as internal/domain writes it
+// (dkim.go, writePrivateKeyPEM()), PKCS#8 as well.
+func readKey(path string) (crypto.Signer, error) {
+	data, err := os.ReadFile(path)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	block, _ := pem.Decode(data)
+	if block == nil {
+		return nil, errors.New("no PEM block")
+	}
+	if key, err := x509.ParsePKCS1PrivateKey(block.Bytes); err == nil {
+		return key, nil
+	}
+	key, err := x509.ParsePKCS8PrivateKey(block.Bytes)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("not an RSA or PKCS#8 key: %w", err)
+	}
+	signer, ok := key.(crypto.Signer)
+	if !ok {
+		return nil, fmt.Errorf("key type %T cannot sign", key)
+	}
+	return signer, nil
+}
+
+// signSession is one connection of a signer socket.
+type signSession struct {
+	milter.NoOpMilter
+	keys *SignKeys
+	// domainOf gives the domain whose key signs the message: the login's on
+	// the applications' socket, the server's name on the panel's own.
+	domainOf func(login string) string
+
+	login   string
+	headers []field
+	signer  *dkim.Signer
+	domain  string
+	expired chan struct{} // closed by the watchdog at signLimit
+	done    chan struct{} // closed when the message ends, to stop it
+}
+
+type field struct{ name, value string }
+
+func (s *signSession) reset() {
+	if s.signer != nil {
+		close(s.done)
+		_ = s.signer.Close()
+	}
+	s.login, s.headers, s.signer, s.domain = "", nil, nil, ""
+}
+
+// MailFrom starts a message. {auth_authen} is the SASL login (see
+// session.MailFrom in milter.go for the macro list Postfix sends).
+func (s *signSession) MailFrom(from string, m *milter.Modifier) (milter.Response, error) {
+	s.reset()
+	s.login = macro(m, "auth_authen")
+	return milter.RespContinue, nil
+}
+
+// Header keeps every header as Postfix hands it over. Postfix 3.10.13,
+// src/milter/milter8.c:2329-2400, milter8_header(): the value with its leading
+// white space, for a milter that asks for it (OptHeaderLeadingSpace,
+// ServeSign); a header of several lines as text separated by "\n"; and not
+// Postfix's own Received:, which goes above the signature anyway (an
+// inserted header is placed relative to the message as delivered).
+func (s *signSession) Header(name, value string, m *milter.Modifier) (milter.Response, error) {
+	s.headers = append(s.headers, field{name, value})
+	return milter.RespContinue, nil
+}
+
+// Headers chooses the key and starts the signer with the header block.
+// What cannot be signed is deferred: the socket is attached with
+// default_action=tempfail, and so is every refusal here.
+//
+// h is not read: go-milter v0.4.1 keeps every header of the connection in it
+// (see senderSession.Headers).
+func (s *signSession) Headers(h textproto.MIMEHeader, m *milter.Modifier) (milter.Response, error) {
+	s.domain = s.domainOf(s.login)
+	if s.domain == "" {
+		log.Printf("dkim-signer: no sending domain for login %q - deferring", s.login)
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	selector, key, err := s.keys.Lookup(s.domain)
+	if err != nil {
+		log.Printf("dkim-signer: %v - deferring", err)
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	keys, block := signLines(s.headers)
+	signer, err := dkim.NewSigner(&dkim.SignOptions{
+		Domain:                 s.domain,
+		Selector:               selector,
+		Signer:                 key,
+		HeaderCanonicalization: dkim.CanonicalizationRelaxed,
+		BodyCanonicalization:   dkim.CanonicalizationSimple,
+		HeaderKeys:             keys,
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		log.Printf("dkim-signer: %s: %v - deferring", s.domain, err)
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	s.signer, s.expired, s.done = signer, make(chan struct{}), make(chan struct{})
+	go watch(signer, s.expired, s.done)
+	if _, err := signer.Write(block); err != nil {
+		log.Printf("dkim-signer: %s: %v - deferring", s.domain, err)
+		s.reset()
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	return milter.RespContinue, nil
+}
+
+// watch closes signer at signLimit unless done is closed first.
+func watch(signer *dkim.Signer, expired, done chan struct{}) {
+	t := time.NewTimer(signLimit)
+	defer t.Stop()
+	select {
+	case <-done:
+	case <-t.C:
+		close(expired)
+		_ = signer.Close()
+	}
+}
+
+// signLines is the header block the signer reads and the names it signs.
+// Each header is written as Postfix will deliver it: the name, the colon, the
+// value with its own leading white space, the lines of a folded value joined
+// with CRLF; and the empty line that ends the block. The names: every header
+// in signHeaders, in message order, and From once more, so that a From:
+// added later breaks the signature (RFC 6376 § 5.4.2; OversignHeaders From in
+// OpenDKIM's configuration until now; go-msgauth v0.7.0, dkim/sign.go,
+// NewSigner(): a name with no instance left is kept in h= and hashes
+// nothing).
+func signLines(headers []field) ([]string, []byte) {
+	var keys []string
+	var b strings.Builder
+	for _, f := range headers {
+		b.WriteString(f.name)
+		b.WriteString(":")
+		b.WriteString(strings.ReplaceAll(strings.ReplaceAll(f.value, "\r\n", "\n"), "\n", "\r\n"))
+		b.WriteString("\r\n")
+		if signHeaders[strings.ToLower(strings.TrimSpace(f.name))] {
+			keys = append(keys, strings.TrimSpace(f.name))
+		}
+	}
+	b.WriteString("\r\n")
+	return append(keys, "From"), []byte(b.String())
+}
+
+// BodyChunk hashes the body as it comes. Postfix 3.10.13,
+// src/milter/milter8.c:2470-2500, milter8_body(): every line ends "\r\n".
+func (s *signSession) BodyChunk(chunk []byte, m *milter.Modifier) (milter.Response, error) {
+	if s.signer == nil {
+		return milter.RespContinue, nil
+	}
+	if _, err := s.signer.Write(chunk); err != nil {
+		log.Printf("dkim-signer: %s: %v - deferring", s.domain, err)
+		s.reset()
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	return milter.RespContinue, nil
+}
+
+// Body is the end of the message: the signature goes in at the top, where
+// OpenDKIM put it (opendkim/opendkim.c:3673, dkimf_insheader(ctx, 0, ...)).
+// Postfix 3.10.13, src/milter/milter8.c:1445-1465, SMFIR_INSHEADER: the
+// index is passed on plus one; src/cleanup/cleanup_milter.c:1193,
+// cleanup_ins_header(): "Index 1 is the top-most header" - above Postfix's
+// own Received:, which a milter never sees (milter8.c:2352-2358, "insert
+// requests are relative to the message as delivered"). go-milter v0.4.1,
+// modifier.go, InsertHeader() turns the folded value's CRLF into LF, as
+// Postfix keeps a header.
+func (s *signSession) Body(m *milter.Modifier) (milter.Response, error) {
+	signer := s.signer
+	if signer == nil {
+		// Headers did not start one, and answered tempfail already.
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	close(s.done)
+	s.signer = nil
+	err := signer.Close()
+	select {
+	case <-s.expired:
+		err = fmt.Errorf("the message took longer than %s", signLimit)
+	default:
+	}
+	if err != nil {
+		log.Printf("dkim-signer: %s: %v - deferring", s.domain, err)
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	name, value, ok := strings.Cut(signer.Signature(), ": ")
+	if !ok || !strings.EqualFold(name, "DKIM-Signature") {
+		log.Printf("dkim-signer: %s: malformed signature from the library - deferring", s.domain)
+		return milter.RespTempFail, nil
+	}
+	if err := m.InsertHeader(0, name, strings.TrimSuffix(value, "\r\n")); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return milter.RespContinue, nil
+}
+
+func (s *signSession) Abort(m *milter.Modifier) error {
+	s.reset()
+	return nil
+}
+
+// ServeSign runs a signer on ln until ctx is cancelled; domainOf chooses the
+// key of each message (signSession.domainOf).
+//
+// The protocol: headers with their leading space (as for the sender check,
+// ServeSender) and the body. The milter says it adds headers (go-milter
+// v0.4.1, milter.go: OptAddHeader is SMFIF_ADDHDRS), as the protocol asks of
+// one that does; Postfix 3.10.13 does not hold an insert request against it
+// (src/milter/milter8.c:1445-1465 reads SMFIR_INSHEADER without looking at
+// the flag).
+func ServeSign(ctx context.Context, ln net.Listener, keys *SignKeys, domainOf func(login string) string) error {
+	srv := &milter.Server{
+		NewMilter: func() milter.Milter {
+			return &signSession{keys: keys, domainOf: domainOf}
+		},
+		Actions:  milter.OptAddHeader,
+		Protocol: milter.OptHeaderLeadingSpace,
+	}
+	go func() {
+		<-ctx.Done()
+		_ = srv.Close()
+	}()
+	if err := srv.Serve(ln); err != nil {
+		if ctx.Err() != nil {
+			return nil
+		}
+		return err
+	}
+	return nil
+}
diff --git a/internal/milter/sign_test.go b/internal/milter/sign_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a81c920
--- /dev/null
+++ b/internal/milter/sign_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,302 @@
+package milter
+
+import (
+	"bytes"
+	"context"
+	"crypto/rand"
+	"crypto/rsa"
+	"crypto/x509"
+	"encoding/base64"
+	"encoding/pem"
+	"net"
+	"os"
+	"path/filepath"
+	"strings"
+	"testing"
+
+	"github.com/emersion/go-milter"
+	"github.com/emersion/go-msgauth/dkim"
+)
+
+// signFixture is a key directory and KeyTable laid out as internal/domain
+// writes them (renderTables(), writePrivateKeyPEM(): PKCS#1 PEM) for
+// example.org with selector sel, and the DNS record of the key.
+type signFixture struct {
+	dir, table, keysDir string
+	record              string
+}
+
+func newSignFixture(t *testing.T) signFixture {
+	t.Helper()
+	dir := t.TempDir()
+	keysDir := filepath.Join(dir, "keys")
+	key, err := rsa.GenerateKey(rand.Reader, 2048)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	keyPath := filepath.Join(keysDir, "example.org", "sel.private")
+	if err := os.MkdirAll(filepath.Dir(keyPath), 0o750); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	pemBytes := pem.EncodeToMemory(&pem.Block{Type: "RSA PRIVATE KEY", Bytes: x509.MarshalPKCS1PrivateKey(key)})
+	if err := os.WriteFile(keyPath, pemBytes, 0o640); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	table := filepath.Join(dir, "KeyTable")
+	if err := os.WriteFile(table, []byte("example.org example.org:sel:"+keyPath+"\n"), 0o640); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	pub, err := x509.MarshalPKIXPublicKey(&key.PublicKey)
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	return signFixture{dir, table, keysDir, "v=DKIM1; k=rsa; p=" + base64.StdEncoding.EncodeToString(pub)}
+}
+
+// startSigner serves a signer whose logins map by domains and returns a
+// session of go-milter's client on it.
+func startSigner(t *testing.T, f signFixture, domainOf func(string) string) *milter.ClientSession {
+	t.Helper()
+	ln, err := net.Listen("tcp", "127.0.0.1:0")
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	ctx, cancel := context.WithCancel(context.Background())
+	t.Cleanup(cancel)
+	go ServeSign(ctx, ln, NewSignKeys(f.table, f.keysDir), domainOf)
+	// The library's server speaks milter version 2; the client asks for no
+	// action only version 6 has (see TestRecipientsThroughGoMilter).
+	cl := milter.NewClientWithOptions("tcp", ln.Addr().String(), milter.ClientOptions{
+		ActionMask: milter.OptAddHeader | milter.OptChangeHeader,
+	})
+	t.Cleanup(func() { cl.Close() })
+	s, err := cl.Session()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	t.Cleanup(func() { s.Close() })
+	return s
+}
+
+func appDomains(login string) string {
+	if login == "app1" {
+		return "example.org"
+	}
+	return ""
+}
+
+// The headers of a test message as Postfix hands them to a milter that asks
+// for the leading space: the value after the colon, a folded one with "\n"
+// between its lines (Postfix 3.10.13, src/milter/milter8.c:2329-2400,
+// milter8_header()). Composed from that source, not seen on a stand.
+var testHeaders = []field{
+	{"From", " Alice <alice@example.org>"},
+	{"To", " bob@example.net"},
+	{"Subject", " a subject that is\n\tfolded over two lines"},
+	{"Date", " Thu, 15 Oct 2026 20:00:00 +0000"},
+	{"Message-ID", " <1@example.org>"},
+	{"X-Mailer", "no space after the colon"},
+}
+
+const testBody = "Hello,\r\n\r\nthe body, with a blank line in it.\r\n"
+
+// sendMessage runs one message through s and returns the modifications
+// asked for at its end and the final action.
+func sendMessage(t *testing.T, s *milter.ClientSession, login string, headers []field, body string) ([]milter.ModifyAction, *milter.Action) {
+	t.Helper()
+	if err := s.Macros(milter.CodeMail, "{auth_authen}", login); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if act, err := s.Mail("<alice@example.org>", nil); err != nil || act.Code != milter.ActContinue {
+		t.Fatalf("mail: %+v %v", act, err)
+	}
+	if act, err := s.Rcpt("<bob@example.net>", nil); err != nil || act.Code != milter.ActContinue {
+		t.Fatalf("rcpt: %+v %v", act, err)
+	}
+	for _, h := range headers {
+		if act, err := s.HeaderField(h.name, h.value); err != nil || act.Code != milter.ActContinue {
+			t.Fatalf("header %s: %+v %v", h.name, act, err)
+		}
+	}
+	act, err := s.HeaderEnd()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if act.Code != milter.ActContinue {
+		return nil, act
+	}
+	if act, err := s.BodyChunk([]byte(body)); err != nil || act.Code != milter.ActContinue {
+		t.Fatalf("body: %+v %v", act, err)
+	}
+	mods, act, err := s.End()
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	return mods, act
+}
+
+// delivered is the message as Postfix delivers it with the signature
+// inserted at the top: every header line ending CRLF.
+func delivered(sig milter.ModifyAction, headers []field, body string) []byte {
+	var b bytes.Buffer
+	crlf := func(v string) string { return strings.ReplaceAll(v, "\n", "\r\n") }
+	b.WriteString(sig.HeaderName + ": " + crlf(sig.HeaderValue) + "\r\n")
+	for _, h := range headers {
+		b.WriteString(h.name + ":" + crlf(h.value) + "\r\n")
+	}
+	b.WriteString("\r\n" + body)
+	return b.Bytes()
+}
+
+func verifyWith(t *testing.T, record string, msg []byte) *dkim.Verification {
+	t.Helper()
+	vs, err := dkim.VerifyWithOptions(bytes.NewReader(msg), &dkim.VerifyOptions{
+		LookupTXT: func(string) ([]string, error) { return []string{record}, nil },
+	})
+	if err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(vs) != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("%d signatures, want 1", len(vs))
+	}
+	return vs[0]
+}
+
+// signed sends one message and returns the signature the signer inserted.
+func signed(t *testing.T, s *milter.ClientSession, login string, headers []field, body string) milter.ModifyAction {
+	t.Helper()
+	mods, act := sendMessage(t, s, login, headers, body)
+	if act.Code != milter.ActContinue {
+		t.Fatalf("end of message: %+v, want continue", act)
+	}
+	if len(mods) != 1 || mods[0].Code != milter.ActInsertHeader || mods[0].HeaderIndex != 0 || mods[0].HeaderName != "DKIM-Signature" {
+		t.Fatalf("modifications %+v, want one DKIM-Signature inserted at 0", mods)
+	}
+	return mods[0]
+}
+
+func TestSignerSignsWithTheLoginsDomain(t *testing.T) {
+	f := newSignFixture(t)
+	s := startSigner(t, f, appDomains)
+	sig := signed(t, s, "app1", testHeaders, testBody)
+
+	v := verifyWith(t, f.record, delivered(sig, testHeaders, testBody))
+	if v.Err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("signature does not verify: %v\n%s", v.Err, delivered(sig, testHeaders, testBody))
+	}
+	if v.Domain != "example.org" {
+		t.Errorf("d=%s, want example.org", v.Domain)
+	}
+	for _, want := range []string{"c=relaxed/simple", "s=sel", "h=From:To:Subject:Date:From"} {
+		if !strings.Contains(strings.ReplaceAll(sig.HeaderValue, "\n", ""), want) {
+			t.Errorf("signature lacks %q: %s", want, sig.HeaderValue)
+		}
+	}
+	// A second From: added on the way breaks it: From is over-signed.
+	tampered := append([]field{{"From", " Mallory <m@evil.example>"}}, testHeaders...)
+	if v := verifyWith(t, f.record, delivered(sig, tampered, testBody)); v.Err == nil {
+		t.Error("a From: added above still verifies")
+	}
+	// A changed body breaks it.
+	if v := verifyWith(t, f.record, delivered(sig, testHeaders, testBody+"more\r\n")); v.Err == nil {
+		t.Error("a changed body still verifies")
+	}
+}
+
+// Two messages on one connection are signed each on their own.
+func TestSignerSignsEachMessageOfAConnection(t *testing.T) {
+	f := newSignFixture(t)
+	s := startSigner(t, f, appDomains)
+	for i, body := range []string{testBody, "Another body.\r\n"} {
+		sig := signed(t, s, "app1", testHeaders, body)
+		if v := verifyWith(t, f.record, delivered(sig, testHeaders, body)); v.Err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("message %d: %v", i+1, v.Err)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// An empty body and a body without a final line end are signed as Postfix
+// delivers them.
+func TestSignerSignsOddBodies(t *testing.T) {
+	f := newSignFixture(t)
+	for _, body := range []string{"", "no final line end"} {
+		s := startSigner(t, f, appDomains)
+		sig := signed(t, s, "app1", testHeaders, body)
+		if v := verifyWith(t, f.record, delivered(sig, testHeaders, body)); v.Err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("body %q: %v", body, v.Err)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// The panel's own socket signs with the server's name whatever the login.
+func TestSignerOnTheLocalSocketUsesItsDomain(t *testing.T) {
+	f := newSignFixture(t)
+	s := startSigner(t, f, func(string) string { return "example.org" })
+	sig := signed(t, s, "", testHeaders, testBody)
+	if v := verifyWith(t, f.record, delivered(sig, testHeaders, testBody)); v.Err != nil || v.Domain != "example.org" {
+		t.Fatalf("d=%s err=%v", v.Domain, v.Err)
+	}
+}
+
+// What cannot be signed is deferred, never passed on unsigned.
+func TestSignerDefersWhatItCannotSign(t *testing.T) {
+	cases := []struct {
+		name  string
+		login string
+		setup func(t *testing.T, f signFixture)
+	}{
+		{"a login with no domain", "stranger", nil},
+		{"no line for the domain", "app1", func(t *testing.T, f signFixture) {
+			if err := os.WriteFile(f.table, []byte("other.example other.example:sel:"+filepath.Join(f.keysDir, "other.example", "sel.private")+"\n"), 0o640); err != nil {
+				t.Fatal(err)
+			}
+		}},
+		{"a key file that is gone", "app1", func(t *testing.T, f signFixture) {
+			if err := os.Remove(filepath.Join(f.keysDir, "example.org", "sel.private")); err != nil {
+				t.Fatal(err)
+			}
+		}},
+		{"a key path outside the key directory", "app1", func(t *testing.T, f signFixture) {
+			outside := filepath.Join(f.dir, "sel.private")
+			if err := os.Rename(filepath.Join(f.keysDir, "example.org", "sel.private"), outside); err != nil {
+				t.Fatal(err)
+			}
+			if err := os.WriteFile(f.table, []byte("example.org example.org:sel:"+outside+"\n"), 0o640); err != nil {
+				t.Fatal(err)
+			}
+		}},
+		{"a key table that is not one", "app1", func(t *testing.T, f signFixture) {
+			if err := os.WriteFile(f.table, []byte("example.org\n"), 0o640); err != nil {
+				t.Fatal(err)
+			}
+		}},
+	}
+	for _, c := range cases {
+		t.Run(c.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			f := newSignFixture(t)
+			if c.setup != nil {
+				c.setup(t, f)
+			}
+			s := startSigner(t, f, appDomains)
+			mods, act := sendMessage(t, s, c.login, testHeaders, testBody)
+			if act.Code != milter.ActTempFail || len(mods) != 0 {
+				t.Fatalf("got %+v with %d modifications, want tempfail and none", act, len(mods))
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
+
+// signLines writes the block Postfix will deliver and names what is signed.
+func TestSignLines(t *testing.T) {
+	keys, block := signLines(testHeaders)
+	if got := strings.Join(keys, ":"); got != "From:To:Subject:Date:From" {
+		t.Errorf("keys %s", got)
+	}
+	want := "From: Alice <alice@example.org>\r\nTo: bob@example.net\r\n" +
+		"Subject: a subject that is\r\n\tfolded over two lines\r\n" +
+		"Date: Thu, 15 Oct 2026 20:00:00 +0000\r\nMessage-ID: <1@example.org>\r\n" +
+		"X-Mailer:no space after the colon\r\n\r\n"
+	if string(block) != want {
+		t.Errorf("block\n%q\nwant\n%q", block, want)
+	}
+}
diff --git a/test/e2e/compose.override.yml b/test/e2e/compose.override.yml
index 6502118..a8e13d4 100644
--- a/test/e2e/compose.override.yml
+++ b/test/e2e/compose.override.yml
@@ -109,6 +109,9 @@ services:
       context: ../sink
     volumes:
       - ./mail-stage:/mail
+    # dkimverify looks the DKIM keys up in the fake zone.
+    dns:
+      - 10.77.0.10
     networks:
       e2e:
         ipv4_address: 10.77.0.11
diff --git a/test/e2e/mail_helpers.go b/test/e2e/mail_helpers.go
index 443a74e..b5a5d1d 100644
--- a/test/e2e/mail_helpers.go
+++ b/test/e2e/mail_helpers.go
@@ -28,7 +28,15 @@ const (
 // sleeping a fixed duration is what keeps this deterministic even under a
 // slow CI runner (plan C.4).
 func findSinkMessage(stageDir, token string, timeout time.Duration) ([]byte, error) {
+	_, raw, err := findSinkFile(stageDir, token, timeout)
+	return raw, err
+}
+
+// findSinkFile is findSinkMessage that also says the file's name in the
+// sink's /mail (the same directory, mounted).
+func findSinkFile(stageDir, token string, timeout time.Duration) (string, []byte, error) {
 	dir := filepath.Join(stageDir, "mail-stage")
+	var name string
 	var found []byte
 	err := waitFor(fmt.Sprintf("sink-MX to receive a message tagged %q", token), timeout, 300*time.Millisecond, func() (bool, error) {
 		entries, err := os.ReadDir(dir)
@@ -44,19 +52,20 @@ func findSinkMessage(stageDir, token string, timeout time.Duration) ([]byte, err
 				continue
 			}
 			if bytes.Contains(b, []byte(token)) {
-				found = b
+				name, found = e.Name(), b
 				return true, nil
 			}
 		}
 		return false, fmt.Errorf("no dumped message contains %q yet (%d on disk)", token, len(entries))
 	})
-	return found, err
+	return name, found, err
 }
 
 // verifyDKIM checks that raw (a message dumped by the sink) carries a DKIM
-// signature for domain that validates against the public key published in the
-// fake zone — i.e. exactly what a real receiver would check, using DNS the
-// harness itself controls instead of net.DefaultResolver (plan C.4).
+// signature for domain and that every signature for it validates against the
+// public key published in the fake zone — i.e. exactly what a real receiver
+// would check, using DNS the harness itself controls instead of
+// net.DefaultResolver (plan C.4).
 func verifyDKIM(raw []byte, domain string) error {
 	verifications, err := dkim.VerifyWithOptions(bytes.NewReader(raw), &dkim.VerifyOptions{
 		LookupTXT: lookupTXTFunc(),
@@ -64,15 +73,73 @@ func verifyDKIM(raw []byte, domain string) error {
 	if err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("dkim verify: %w", err)
 	}
+	n := 0
 	for _, v := range verifications {
 		if v.Domain == domain {
 			if v.Err != nil {
 				return fmt.Errorf("dkim signature for %s did not validate: %w", domain, v.Err)
 			}
-			return nil
+			n++
 		}
 	}
-	return fmt.Errorf("no DKIM signature found for domain %s (got %d signature(s))", domain, len(verifications))
+	if n == 0 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("no DKIM signature found for domain %s (got %d signature(s))", domain, len(verifications))
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// checkBothSigners is the oracle of docs/plans/panel-dkim-signing.md, stage
+// 1: the panel's signer and OpenDKIM both sign (OpenDKIM after the panel in
+// the chain, so its signature is the top one - build/postfix-config.sh);
+// the two must agree on what they sign - the same h= and bh= - and each
+// must verify with dkimpy (python3-dkim in the sink image), an
+// implementation that is neither go-msgauth, the panel's library, nor
+// OpenDKIM. name is the file in the sink's /mail.
+func checkBothSigners(s *stack, name string, raw []byte, domain string) error {
+	msg, err := mail.ReadMessage(bytes.NewReader(raw))
+	if err != nil {
+		return fmt.Errorf("parse the delivered message: %w", err)
+	}
+	var sigs []map[string]string
+	for _, v := range msg.Header["Dkim-Signature"] {
+		tags := dkimTags(v)
+		if tags["d"] == domain {
+			sigs = append(sigs, tags)
+		}
+	}
+	if len(sigs) != 2 {
+		return fmt.Errorf("%d DKIM signatures for %s, want 2 (the panel's and OpenDKIM's)", len(sigs), domain)
+	}
+	for _, tag := range []string{"bh", "h", "c", "s", "a"} {
+		a, b := sigs[0][tag], sigs[1][tag]
+		if tag == "h" {
+			a, b = strings.ToLower(a), strings.ToLower(b)
+		}
+		if a != b {
+			return fmt.Errorf("the signatures differ in %s=: OpenDKIM %q, the panel %q", tag, a, b)
+		}
+	}
+	for i := range sigs {
+		out, err := s.execIn("sink", "sh", "-c", fmt.Sprintf("dkimverify --index %d < '/mail/%s'", i, name))
+		if err != nil || !strings.Contains(out, "signature ok") {
+			return fmt.Errorf("dkimpy on signature %d (%s): %v\n%s", i, []string{"OpenDKIM's", "the panel's"}[i], err, out)
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// dkimTags splits a DKIM-Signature value into its tags, white space removed
+// (RFC 6376 § 3.2: tag=value pairs separated by ";", FWS anywhere).
+func dkimTags(v string) map[string]string {
+	tags := map[string]string{}
+	for _, part := range strings.Split(v, ";") {
+		k, val, ok := strings.Cut(part, "=")
+		if !ok {
+			continue
+		}
+		tags[strings.TrimSpace(k)] = strings.Join(strings.Fields(val), "")
+	}
+	return tags
 }
 
 // postfixReceived returns the Received: headers of raw that a Postfix smtpd
diff --git a/test/e2e/main_test.go b/test/e2e/main_test.go
index d16f21c..8dfe64a 100644
--- a/test/e2e/main_test.go
+++ b/test/e2e/main_test.go
@@ -267,13 +267,16 @@ func TestE2E(t *testing.T) {
 				res.dialErr, res.authErr, res.mailErr, res.rcptErr, res.dataErr)
 		}
 
-		raw, err := findSinkMessage(h.stageDir, token, 30*time.Second)
+		file, raw, err := findSinkFile(h.stageDir, token, 30*time.Second)
 		if err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("message never reached the sink: %v", err)
 		}
 		if err := verifyDKIM(raw, senderDomain); err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("DKIM did not verify against the record the panel published: %v", err)
 		}
+		if err := checkBothSigners(h, file, raw, senderDomain); err != nil {
+			t.Fatalf("the panel's signer: %v\n%s", err, raw)
+		}
 		if err := checkReceivedHidden(raw); err != nil {
 			t.Fatalf("port 465 should hide the application's session: %v", err)
 		}
diff --git a/test/e2e/notifications_test.go b/test/e2e/notifications_test.go
index b6f9765..aed366d 100644
--- a/test/e2e/notifications_test.go
+++ b/test/e2e/notifications_test.go
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ func testNotificationsSetUp(t *testing.T, sc *scenario) {
 // (internal/notify): here it would be a minute of waiting for nothing to happen.
 func testRateLimitRefusalIsNotified(t *testing.T, sc *scenario) {
 	subject := "[SelfPost] " + senderDomain + ": a rate limit is refusing mail"
-	raw, err := findSinkMessage(h.stageDir, subject, 100*time.Second)
+	file, raw, err := findSinkFile(h.stageDir, subject, 100*time.Second)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("no notification reached %s: %v\npanel log:\n%s", adminEmail, err, tailLines(h.logs("selfpost"), "notify", 20))
 	}
@@ -108,6 +108,9 @@ func testRateLimitRefusalIsNotified(t *testing.T, sc *scenario) {
 			t.Errorf("the notification lacks %q:\n%s", want, msg)
 		}
 	}
+	if err := checkBothSigners(h, file, raw, serverName); err != nil {
+		t.Errorf("the panel's signer on its own mail: %v", err)
+	}
 	if err := verifyDKIM(raw, serverName); err != nil {
 		t.Errorf("the notification is not signed as %s with the key Settings shows: %v", serverName, err)
 	}
diff --git a/test/e2e/sink/Dockerfile b/test/e2e/sink/Dockerfile
index eef8711..7bef09d 100644
--- a/test/e2e/sink/Dockerfile
+++ b/test/e2e/sink/Dockerfile
@@ -2,14 +2,17 @@
 # each transaction to its own file under /mail, so the test harness can read
 # the raw received message (headers + body, including the DKIM-Signature
 # Postfix/OpenDKIM added) straight off disk. smtp-sink ships in the postfix
-# package itself — no new dependency.
+# package itself. python3-dkim (dkimpy 1.1.8-2 in trixie, /usr/bin/dkimverify)
+# is the independent DKIM verifier the suite holds the panel's signer to
+# (docs/plans/panel-dkim-signing.md); it looks the keys up through the
+# stand's CoreDNS (compose.override.yml, sink's dns).
 FROM debian:trixie-slim
 
 ENV DEBIAN_FRONTEND=noninteractive
 RUN echo "postfix postfix/mailname string localhost" | debconf-set-selections \
  && echo "postfix postfix/main_mailer_type string Internet Site" | debconf-set-selections \
  && apt-get update \
- && apt-get install -y --no-install-recommends postfix \
+ && apt-get install -y --no-install-recommends postfix python3-dkim \
  && rm -rf /var/lib/apt/lists/*
 
 RUN mkdir -p /mail